Grade 11
  1. Mechanics  1.1. dynamics  1.1.1. Motion in one dimension  1.1.2. Motion in two and three dimensions  1.1.3. Displacement and Distance  1.1.4. Speed and Velocity  1.1.5. Acceleration and deceleration  1.1.6. Graphical analysis of motion  1.1.7. Equations of motion (advanced derivations)  1.1.8. Free fall and terminal velocity  1.1.9. Projectile motion  1.1.10. Relative velocity in one and two dimensions  1.1.11. Motion of a car on an inclined plane  1.2. Dynamics  1.2.1. Newton's laws of motion and their applications  1.2.2. Inertia and Newton's first law  1.2.3. Force and types of force  1.2.4. Static and kinetic friction  1.2.5. Circular motion and centripetal acceleration  1.2.6. Non-uniform circular motion  1.2.7. Banking of roads and curves  1.2.8. Momentum and Impulse  1.2.9. Conservation of momentum in one and two dimensions  1.2.10. Applications of Newton's Third Law  1.3. Work, Energy and Power  1.3.1. Work done by a constant and variable force  1.3.2. Work–energy theorem  1.3.3. Kinetic and potential energy  1.3.4. Gravitational and elastic potential energy  1.3.5. Conservation of mechanical energy  1.3.6. Power and instantaneous power  1.3.7. Efficiency of machines  1.3.8. Work done by conservative and non-conservative forces  1.4. Rotational motion  1.4.1. Torque and angular acceleration  1.4.2. Rotational equilibrium  1.4.3. Moment of inertia and its applications  1.4.4. Angular momentum and its conservation  1.4.5. Kinetic energy of rolling motion and rotation  1.4.6. Parallel and Perpendicular Axis Theorem  1.4.7. Dynamics of rotational motion
  2. Gravitational force  2.1. Universal gravitation  2.1.1. Newton's law of universal gravitation  2.1.2. Gravitational field and potential  2.1.3. Change in acceleration due to gravity  2.1.4. Kepler's laws of planetary motion  2.1.5. Orbital mechanics and satellites  2.1.6. Escape velocity and orbital velocity  2.1.7. Weightlessness and free fall  2.1.8. Gravitational potential energy and energy in orbits  2.1.9. Black holes and gravitational lensing
  3. Properties of matter  3.1. Fluid mechanics  3.1.1. Density and pressure in liquids  3.1.2. Pascal's theory and applications  3.1.3. Archimedes' Principle and Buoyancy  3.1.4. Bernoulli's equation and applications  3.1.5. Continuity equation and the Venturi effect  3.1.6. Surface tension and capillarity  3.1.7. Viscosity and Poiseuille's Law  3.1.8. Reynolds number and turbulence  3.2. Elasticity and deformation  3.2.1. Hooke's law and the stress-strain relation  3.2.2. Elastic modulus and applications  3.2.3. Deformation and yield strength of solids
  4. Thermal physics  4.1. Heat and temperature  4.1.1. Thermometric properties and temperature scale  4.1.2. Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases  4.1.3. Heat transfer system  4.1.4. Specific heat capacity and calorimetry  4.1.5. Latent heat and phase change  4.2. Kinetic theory of gases  4.2.1. Molecular model of gases  4.2.2. Kinetic explanation of temperature  4.2.3. Ideal Gas Equation and Deviations  4.2.4. Mean free path and Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution  4.3. Laws of Thermodynamics  4.3.1. Zeroth Law and Thermal Equilibrium  4.3.2. First Law and Internal Energy  4.3.3. The Second Law and Entropy  4.3.4. Carnot cycle and heat engines  4.3.5. Refrigerators and heat pumps
  5. Waves and oscillations  5.1. Simple Harmonic Motion  5.1.1. Equations of SHM  5.1.2. Energy in SHM  5.1.3. Damped and forced oscillations  5.1.4. Resonance and applications  5.1.5. Pendulum and spring-mass system  5.2. Wave motion  5.2.1. Types of mechanical waves  5.2.2. Wave motion and energy transport  5.2.3. Superposition Principle and Standing Waves  5.2.4. Reflection, Refraction and Diffraction  5.2.5. Doppler effect in sound and light  5.2.6. Pulsations and interference
  6. Electricity and Magnetism  6.1. Electrostatics  6.1.1. Electric charge and conservation  6.1.2. Coulomb's law and its applications  6.1.3. Electric field and electric flux  6.1.4. Electric potential and potential energy  6.1.5. Capacitance and Energy Stored in a Capacitor  6.2. Current Electricity  6.2.1. Ohm's law and electrical resistance  6.2.2. Resistivity and temperature dependence  6.2.3. Kirchhoff's Laws and Circuit Analysis  6.2.4. Electrical power and efficiency  6.2.5. Combination of resistors  6.3. Magnetism and Electromagnetism  6.3.1. Magnetic fields and their sources  6.3.2. Magnetic force on moving charges  6.3.3. Electromagnetic induction  6.3.4. Faraday's and Lenz's laws  6.3.5. Inductance and Transformer  6.3.6. Alternating current and its applications
  7. Optics  7.1. Reflection and Refraction  7.1.1. laws of reflection and refraction  7.1.2. Mirrors and lenses  7.1.3. Total internal reflection and optical fiber  7.2. Wave optics  7.2.1. Interference and Diffraction  7.2.2. Young's double-slit experiment  7.2.3. Polarization of light
  8. Modern Physics  8.1.1. Photoelectric effect and Einstein's theory  8.1.2. Wave–particle duality  8.1.3. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle  8.1.4. Compton Effect  8.2. Atomic and Nuclear Physics  8.2.1. Atomic model and energy levels  8.2.2. Radioactive decay and half-life  8.2.3. Nuclear Fission and Fusion
  9. Electronics and Communication  9.1. Semiconductors  9.1.1. pn junction and diode  9.1.2. Transistors and Logic Gates  9.1.3. Integrated Circuits and Applications  9.2. Communication Systems  9.2.1. Basics of Analog and Digital Communication  9.2.2. Wireless and Optical Communication  9.2.3. Modulation and Demodulation

Grade 11 → Properties of matter ↓


Fluid mechanics


Fluid mechanics is a branch of physics that studies fluids - liquids, gases and plasmas - and the forces that act on them. Understanding fluid mechanics is essential because fluids are a part of everyday life, whether it's the water we drink or the air we breathe.

What is fluid?

A fluid is a substance that can flow and take the shape of its container. This includes liquids such as water and oil, as well as gases such as air and helium. Unlike solids, fluids have no fixed shape, and their particles can move freely past one another.

Properties of liquids

Fluids have several key properties that help us understand their behavior:

Density

Density is the mass per unit volume of a fluid. It is important because it affects how substances interact with each other. The formula for density is:

Density (ρ) = mass (m) / volume (V)

For example, water has a higher density than oil, which is why oil floats on water.

Pressure

Pressure is the force applied per unit area of a surface. In fluids, pressure is applied equally in all directions at any given point. The formula for pressure is:

Pressure (P) = force (F) / area (A)

An example of pressure in fluids is the pressure of air inside a balloon. The air molecules collide with the walls of the balloon, creating pressure that keeps the balloon inflated.

Pressure

Stickiness

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. It describes the internal friction within the fluid. A high viscosity fluid, like honey, flows slowly, while a low viscosity fluid, like water, flows quickly.

Fundamental laws of fluid mechanics

Pascal's law

Pascal's law states that when pressure is applied to a confined fluid, there is a change in pressure throughout the fluid. This principle is used in hydraulic lifts, where a small force applied to a small area is transmitted to a larger area, allowing a larger force to be applied.

Archimedes principle

Archimedes' principle states that any object immersed in a fluid is lifted up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. This principle explains why objects such as ships float on water. The buoyant force is greater than the weight of the object, which allows it to float.

Buoyant force

Bernoulli's equation

Bernoulli's equation relates the pressure, velocity, and height of a moving fluid. It states that for an incompressible, frictionless fluid, the following relation holds:

P + 0.5 * ρ * v^2 + ρ * g * h = constant

where P is the pressure, ρ is the density of the fluid, v is the velocity of the fluid, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the altitude. Bernoulli's principle helps explain how airplanes can fly, because the air pressure on the upper surface of the wings is less than the pressure on the lower surface, creating lift.

Fluid flow

Laminar flow

Laminar flow is a type of fluid flow in which the fluid flows in smooth paths or layers. It usually occurs at low velocities, and the streamline paths are parallel, not crossing each other.

Turbulent flow

Turbulent flow occurs when the fluid undergoes irregular fluctuations or mixing. This usually occurs at high velocities and results in chaotic changes in pressure and flow velocity.

Laminar flow Turbulent flow

Viscous flow and Reynolds number

Viscous flow is described by the viscosity and velocity of the fluid. The Reynolds number is a dimensionless number that helps predict the flow pattern of various fluid flow conditions. It is given by:

Re = (ρ * v * L) / μ

where ρ is the density of the fluid, v is the velocity, L is a characteristic length (such as diameter), and μ is the dynamic viscosity. Low Reynolds numbers indicate laminar flow, while high numbers indicate turbulent flow.

Applications of fluid mechanics

Hydraulics

Hydraulic systems use this fluid pressure to generate power. For example, hydraulic brakes in vehicles use brake fluid to transmit force from the pedal to the brake disc, slowing the vehicle.

Aerodynamics

Aerodynamics is the study of the behavior of air and other gaseous fluids in motion. It is essential in designing airplanes, cars, and even buildings to reduce drag and improve efficiency.

Pipe system

Fluid dynamics helps design efficient pipe systems for transporting liquids and gases in industries. Understanding factors such as pressure loss and flow rate is important to ensure efficient transportation of materials.

Conclusion

Fluid mechanics is a fundamental part of physics that has many applications, ranging from simple everyday actions like drinking water from a straw to complex engineering systems like aircraft design. Understanding the principles of fluid behavior helps solve practical problems and design efficient systems. From boiling water to weather patterns, fluid mechanics plays a role in a wide range of phenomena observed in the world around us.


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Fluid mechanics

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