Undergraduate
  1. Classical mechanics  1.1. dynamics  1.1.1. Motion in one dimension  1.1.2. Motion in two dimensions  1.1.3. projectile motion  1.1.4. Relative speed  1.1.5. Uniform circular motion  1.1.6. Non-uniform circular motion  1.1.7. Reference frames and transformations  1.2. Newton's Laws of Motion  1.2.1. First law of motion  1.2.2. Second law of motion  1.2.3. Third Law of Motion  1.2.4. Applications of Newton's Laws  1.2.5. Friction and its types  1.2.6. Free Body Diagram  1.2.7. Constraints and pseudo-forces  1.3. Work and Energy  1.3.1. work done by the force  1.3.2. Work–energy theorem  1.3.3. Kinetic energy  1.3.4. Potential energy in classical mechanics  1.3.5. Conservative and non-conservative forces  1.3.6. Energy Conservation  1.3.7. Power and efficiency  1.4. Speed and collisions  1.4.1. Linear momentum  1.4.2. Conservation of momentum  1.4.3. Impulse and impact force  1.4.4. Elastic and inelastic collision  1.4.5. Center of mass and speed  1.4.6. Rocket Propulsion  1.5. Rotational motion  1.5.1. Torque and Angular Momentum  1.5.2. Moment of inertia  1.5.3. Rotational Kinematics  1.5.4. Rotational Energy  1.5.5. Rolling Motion  1.5.6. Precession and gyroscopic motion  1.6. Gravitational force  1.6.1. Newton's law of universal gravitation  1.6.2. Gravitational potential energy  1.6.3. Orbital mechanics  1.6.4. Kepler's laws of planetary motion  1.6.5. Gravitational field and potential  1.7. Fluid mechanics  1.7.1. Pressure and Pascal's Principle  1.7.2. Buoyancy and Archimedes' principle  1.7.3. Fluid Dynamics and Bernoulli's Principle  1.7.4. Viscosity and Poiseuille's law  1.7.5. Surface tension and capillarity  1.8. Oscillations and waves  1.8.1. Simple Harmonic Motion  1.8.2. Damped and driven oscillations  1.8.3. Coupled oscillations and common modes  1.8.4. Wave properties and types  1.8.5. Sound Waves and the Doppler Effect  1.8.6. Wave interference and superposition
  2. Electromagnetism  2.1. Electrostatics  2.1.1. Electric charge and properties  2.1.2. Coulomb's law  2.1.3. Electric field and electric potential  2.1.4. Gauss's Law  2.1.5. Capacitance and Dielectric  2.1.6. Electric dipole and potential energy  2.2. Electric circuits  2.2.1. Current and Resistance  2.2.2. Ohm's law  2.2.3. Kirchhoff's Laws  2.2.4. RC Circuit  2.2.5. AC Circuits and Reactance  2.2.6. Electric power and energy  2.3. Magnetism  2.3.1. Magnetic Fields and Forces  2.3.2. Ampere's Law  2.3.3. Magnetic dipole moment  2.3.4. Biot-Savart law  2.3.5. Magnetic Materials and Hysteresis  2.4. Electromagnetic induction  2.4.1. Faraday's Law  2.4.2. Lenz's law  2.4.3. Self and mutual induction  2.4.4. Transformers and Inductive Circuits  2.5. Maxwell's equations  2.5.1. Gauss's law for electricity  2.5.2. Gauss's law for magnetism  2.5.3. Faraday's law of induction  2.5.4. Ampere-Maxwell law  2.5.5. Electromagnetic waves
  3. Thermodynamics  3.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  3.1.1. Zeroth law of thermodynamics  3.1.2. First law of thermodynamics  3.1.3. Second Law  3.1.4. Third Law  3.2. Heat and work  3.2.1. Heat transfer (conduction, convection, radiation)  3.2.2. Thermal expansion  3.2.3. Heat engines and refrigerators  3.2.4. Carnot cycle and efficiency  3.3. Statistical mechanics  3.3.1. Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution  3.3.2. Entropy and Probability  3.3.3. Partition function  3.3.4. Fermi–Dirac and Bose–Einstein statistics
  4. Optics  4.1. Geometrical Optics  4.1.1. Reflection and Refraction  4.1.2. Mirrors and lenses  4.1.3. Optical Instruments  4.1.4. Fermat's principle  4.2. Wave optics  4.2.1. Interference in wave optics  4.2.2. Diffraction  4.2.3. Polarization  4.2.4. Coherence and holography
  5. Quantum mechanics  5.1. Wave–particle duality  5.1.1. Blackbody radiation in wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics  5.1.2. Photoelectric effect  5.1.3. Compton scattering  5.1.4. De Broglie wavelength  5.2. Schrödinger Equation  5.2.1. Time-independent Schrödinger equation  5.2.2. Particle in a box  5.2.3. Quantum Tunneling  5.2.4. Potential wells and obstacles  5.3. Quantum States  5.3.1. Wave function  5.3.2. Quantum operators  5.3.3. Heisenberg uncertainty principle  5.3.4. Angular momentum and spin
  6. Relativity  6.1. Special relativity  6.1.1. Lorentz transformations  6.1.2. Time expansion and length contraction  6.1.3. Relativistic energy and momentum  6.2. General relativity  6.2.1. Principle of Equivalence  6.2.2. Schwarzschild metric  6.2.3. Gravitational waves  6.2.4. Black holes and event horizons
  7. Solid state physics  7.1. Crystal structure  7.1.1. Bravais lattices  7.1.2. X-ray diffraction  7.1.3. Band theory  7.1.4. Phonons and lattice vibrations  7.2. Electrical and Magnetic Properties  7.2.1. Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators  7.2.2. Superconductivity  7.2.3. Hall effect
  8. Nuclear and particle physics  8.1. Atomic Structure  8.1.1. Atomic Model  8.1.2. Nuclear binding energy  8.2. Radioactivity  8.2.1. Alpha, beta, gamma decay  8.2.2. Half life  8.2.3. Nuclear Fission and Fusion  8.3. Particle physics  8.3.1. Standard Model  8.3.2. Quarks and Leptons  8.3.3. antimatter  8.3.4. Fundamental interactions
  9. Astrophysics and cosmology  9.1. Stellar evolution  9.1.1. Star formation  9.1.2. Black holes and neutron stars  9.1.3. White dwarfs and supernovae  9.2. Cosmology  9.2.1. The Big Bang Theory  9.2.2. Dark matter and dark energy  9.2.3. Cosmic microwave background

Undergraduate → Classical mechanics → Oscillations and waves ↓


Coupled oscillations and common modes


When two or more oscillating systems interact with each other, they can exhibit interesting and complex behavior. This interaction is often called coupling. A clear understanding of coupled oscillations is important because it underlies a variety of phenomena observed in classical and quantum physics as well as many technological applications.

Basic concepts

Let us consider two pendulums of the same length, connected by a spring. If you displace one pendulum and release it, you will see that after a while, the momentum is almost completely transferred to the other pendulum. This is a classic demonstration of coupled oscillations.

Fixed Support Spring

Mathematical analysis of coupled oscillations

Consider two coupled oscillators with equal masses m and spring constant k, connected by an additional spring with spring constant k_c. The equations of motion for displacements x1 and x2 from equilibrium can be written as:

m(d²x1/dt²) = -kx1 + kc(x2 - x1) m(d²x2/dt²) = -kx2 + kc(x1 - x2)

In matrix form, these equations become:

m(d²X/dt²) = -KX

where X is the vector of displacements and K is the matrix of spring constants:

X = | x1 | | x2 | K = | k + kc -kc | | -kc k + kc |

Normal mode

The normal mode of a coupled oscillatory system is a pattern of motion in which all parts of the system oscillate sinusoidally with the same frequency and maintain fixed relative amplitudes. Finding the normal mode of a system involves solving the eigenvalue problem:

(K - mω²I)A = 0

where ω is the angular frequency, I is the identity matrix, and A is the vector of amplitudes. The solutions to this problem give the allowed frequencies (eigenvalues) and the corresponding mode shapes (eigenvectors).

Example calculation

Suppose the mass of both pendulums is 1 kg, the spring constant is 50 N/m, and the coupling spring constant is 10 N/m:

K = | 60 -10 | | -10 60 |

The eigenvalue equation becomes:

| 60 - mω² -10 | | A1 | = 0 | -10 60 - mω² | | A2 |

Solving this for non-trivial solutions, we get:

(60 - mω²)² - 100 = 0

On solving the quadratic equation, we get two common mode frequencies.

Visualization of normal mode

For the calculated normal mode frequencies, we can look at their corresponding mode shapes:

1 2 Mode 1: In-phase 1 2 Mode 2: Out-of-phase

Energy in coupled oscillations

Energy may be transferred between the oscillators in a coupled system, producing beating or periodic energy oscillations between the modes. The total energy in such a system can be expressed as the sum of kinetic and potential energy. The individual energy expressions depend on the normal mode being excited.

E = T + U

where T is the kinetic energy and U is the potential energy. Analysis of energy transfer provides deep information about the dynamics of the system.

Application

Coupled oscillations and normal modes have wide applications in physics and engineering. Some notable examples include:

  • Molecular vibrations: Normal mode analysis helps understand the vibration spectrum of molecules, which is important for chemical reactions.
  • Mechanical systems: Engineering structures, including bridges and buildings, are designed with normal modes in mind to avoid resonant frequencies.
  • Electronics: Coupled circuits and devices such as filters and oscillators use the concepts of coupled oscillations for efficient design.

Conclusion

Understanding coupled oscillations and normal modes is fundamental to understanding complex oscillatory behavior in many physical systems. By studying these concepts, we can predict system behavior, optimize designs in engineering, and understand natural phenomena. The mathematical tools provided give general solutions applicable to many disciplines, demonstrating the versatility and importance of these classical mechanics principles.


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Coupled oscillations and common modes

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