Undergraduate
  1. Classical mechanics  1.1. dynamics  1.1.1. Motion in one dimension  1.1.2. Motion in two dimensions  1.1.3. projectile motion  1.1.4. Relative speed  1.1.5. Uniform circular motion  1.1.6. Non-uniform circular motion  1.1.7. Reference frames and transformations  1.2. Newton's Laws of Motion  1.2.1. First law of motion  1.2.2. Second law of motion  1.2.3. Third Law of Motion  1.2.4. Applications of Newton's Laws  1.2.5. Friction and its types  1.2.6. Free Body Diagram  1.2.7. Constraints and pseudo-forces  1.3. Work and Energy  1.3.1. work done by the force  1.3.2. Work–energy theorem  1.3.3. Kinetic energy  1.3.4. Potential energy in classical mechanics  1.3.5. Conservative and non-conservative forces  1.3.6. Energy Conservation  1.3.7. Power and efficiency  1.4. Speed and collisions  1.4.1. Linear momentum  1.4.2. Conservation of momentum  1.4.3. Impulse and impact force  1.4.4. Elastic and inelastic collision  1.4.5. Center of mass and speed  1.4.6. Rocket Propulsion  1.5. Rotational motion  1.5.1. Torque and Angular Momentum  1.5.2. Moment of inertia  1.5.3. Rotational Kinematics  1.5.4. Rotational Energy  1.5.5. Rolling Motion  1.5.6. Precession and gyroscopic motion  1.6. Gravitational force  1.6.1. Newton's law of universal gravitation  1.6.2. Gravitational potential energy  1.6.3. Orbital mechanics  1.6.4. Kepler's laws of planetary motion  1.6.5. Gravitational field and potential  1.7. Fluid mechanics  1.7.1. Pressure and Pascal's Principle  1.7.2. Buoyancy and Archimedes' principle  1.7.3. Fluid Dynamics and Bernoulli's Principle  1.7.4. Viscosity and Poiseuille's law  1.7.5. Surface tension and capillarity  1.8. Oscillations and waves  1.8.1. Simple Harmonic Motion  1.8.2. Damped and driven oscillations  1.8.3. Coupled oscillations and common modes  1.8.4. Wave properties and types  1.8.5. Sound Waves and the Doppler Effect  1.8.6. Wave interference and superposition
  2. Electromagnetism  2.1. Electrostatics  2.1.1. Electric charge and properties  2.1.2. Coulomb's law  2.1.3. Electric field and electric potential  2.1.4. Gauss's Law  2.1.5. Capacitance and Dielectric  2.1.6. Electric dipole and potential energy  2.2. Electric circuits  2.2.1. Current and Resistance  2.2.2. Ohm's law  2.2.3. Kirchhoff's Laws  2.2.4. RC Circuit  2.2.5. AC Circuits and Reactance  2.2.6. Electric power and energy  2.3. Magnetism  2.3.1. Magnetic Fields and Forces  2.3.2. Ampere's Law  2.3.3. Magnetic dipole moment  2.3.4. Biot-Savart law  2.3.5. Magnetic Materials and Hysteresis  2.4. Electromagnetic induction  2.4.1. Faraday's Law  2.4.2. Lenz's law  2.4.3. Self and mutual induction  2.4.4. Transformers and Inductive Circuits  2.5. Maxwell's equations  2.5.1. Gauss's law for electricity  2.5.2. Gauss's law for magnetism  2.5.3. Faraday's law of induction  2.5.4. Ampere-Maxwell law  2.5.5. Electromagnetic waves
  3. Thermodynamics  3.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  3.1.1. Zeroth law of thermodynamics  3.1.2. First law of thermodynamics  3.1.3. Second Law  3.1.4. Third Law  3.2. Heat and work  3.2.1. Heat transfer (conduction, convection, radiation)  3.2.2. Thermal expansion  3.2.3. Heat engines and refrigerators  3.2.4. Carnot cycle and efficiency  3.3. Statistical mechanics  3.3.1. Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution  3.3.2. Entropy and Probability  3.3.3. Partition function  3.3.4. Fermi–Dirac and Bose–Einstein statistics
  4. Optics  4.1. Geometrical Optics  4.1.1. Reflection and Refraction  4.1.2. Mirrors and lenses  4.1.3. Optical Instruments  4.1.4. Fermat's principle  4.2. Wave optics  4.2.1. Interference in wave optics  4.2.2. Diffraction  4.2.3. Polarization  4.2.4. Coherence and holography
  5. Quantum mechanics  5.1. Wave–particle duality  5.1.1. Blackbody radiation in wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics  5.1.2. Photoelectric effect  5.1.3. Compton scattering  5.1.4. De Broglie wavelength  5.2. Schrödinger Equation  5.2.1. Time-independent Schrödinger equation  5.2.2. Particle in a box  5.2.3. Quantum Tunneling  5.2.4. Potential wells and obstacles  5.3. Quantum States  5.3.1. Wave function  5.3.2. Quantum operators  5.3.3. Heisenberg uncertainty principle  5.3.4. Angular momentum and spin
  6. Relativity  6.1. Special relativity  6.1.1. Lorentz transformations  6.1.2. Time expansion and length contraction  6.1.3. Relativistic energy and momentum  6.2. General relativity  6.2.1. Principle of Equivalence  6.2.2. Schwarzschild metric  6.2.3. Gravitational waves  6.2.4. Black holes and event horizons
  7. Solid state physics  7.1. Crystal structure  7.1.1. Bravais lattices  7.1.2. X-ray diffraction  7.1.3. Band theory  7.1.4. Phonons and lattice vibrations  7.2. Electrical and Magnetic Properties  7.2.1. Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators  7.2.2. Superconductivity  7.2.3. Hall effect
  8. Nuclear and particle physics  8.1. Atomic Structure  8.1.1. Atomic Model  8.1.2. Nuclear binding energy  8.2. Radioactivity  8.2.1. Alpha, beta, gamma decay  8.2.2. Half life  8.2.3. Nuclear Fission and Fusion  8.3. Particle physics  8.3.1. Standard Model  8.3.2. Quarks and Leptons  8.3.3. antimatter  8.3.4. Fundamental interactions
  9. Astrophysics and cosmology  9.1. Stellar evolution  9.1.1. Star formation  9.1.2. Black holes and neutron stars  9.1.3. White dwarfs and supernovae  9.2. Cosmology  9.2.1. The Big Bang Theory  9.2.2. Dark matter and dark energy  9.2.3. Cosmic microwave background

Undergraduate → Nuclear and particle physics ↓


Particle physics


Particle physics is a fascinating branch of science that seeks to understand the fundamental components of the universe. Although it may seem complex, it basically involves the study of the smallest pieces of matter and the forces that control them. The goal of this ambitious field is to answer some of the most profound questions about the nature of the universe. Below, we'll explore the key concepts of particle physics, explain its importance, and see how it fits into the broader picture of physics.

What are particles?

Simply put, particles are the building blocks of everything around us. They are the smallest known units of matter and energy. Atoms, once thought to be the smallest units of matter, are themselves made up of even smaller particles - protons, neutrons and electrons. But particle physics goes even deeper than that, exploring the sub-components of protons and neutrons, known as quarks, as well as other elementary particles.

Electrons Proton Neutron Atoms

Elementary particles

Elementary particles are particles that have no substructure; that is, they are not composed of smaller particles. The current understanding of these particles is mainly explained by the Standard Model of particle physics. According to the Standard Model, elementary particles can be classified into two groups: fermions and bosons.

Fermions

Fermions are the building blocks of matter. They obey the Pauli exclusion principle, which means that no two fermions can be in the same quantum state at the same time. Fermions are divided into quarks and leptons.

  • Quarks: The building blocks of protons and neutrons. There are six types or "flavors" of quarks: up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom.
  • Leptons: This includes electrons and neutrinos. Some well-known leptons are the electron, muon, and tau.

Bosons

Bosons are force carriers that do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle. These include particles such as photons, gluons, Z and W bosons, and the Higgs boson. Each of these is responsible for mediating one of the fundamental forces of nature.

  • Photon: Carrier of electromagnetic force.
  • Gluon: Carrier of the strong force, which holds the nuclei of atoms together.
  • Z and W bosons: Mediate the weak nuclear force, which is responsible for radioactive decay.
  • Higgs boson: Associated with the Higgs field, gives mass to other particles.

Four fundamental forces

The interaction between particles is governed by four fundamental forces. Each of these forces has a different range and strength and is governed by different particles.

  1. Gravity: The weakest but longest range. Gravity affects larger particles and is known as the force that controls celestial bodies.
  2. Electromagnetic force: Acts between charged particles and is controlled by photons. It is responsible for electricity, magnetism and light.
  3. Strong nuclear force: The strongest force that holds protons and neutrons together within atomic nuclei. It is controlled by gluons.
  4. Weak nuclear force: Responsible for some types of radioactive decay. It is mediated by the W and Z bosons.
Electromagnetic Strong Weak Gravity

Understanding the Standard Model

The Standard Model of particle physics is a well-tested theoretical framework that describes the electromagnetic, weak, and strong nuclear forces. It is a theory rich in experimental verification and predictive power. Despite its successes, it does not include gravity, which is described by the theory of general relativity.

The Standard Model groups the fundamental particles into a table of particles that classifies and explains their interactions.

| Particle | Category |
|----------|----------|
| Quark    | Fermion  |
| Leptons  | Fermions |
| Gauge boson | Boson |
| Higgs Boson | Boson |

Applications of particle physics

Insights gained from particle physics have practical applications in many fields, including medical imaging techniques such as PET scans, the development of the World Wide Web at CERN, and advances in materials science. Techniques developed for particle accelerators and detectors often find applications beyond the realm of physics research.

Particle accelerators

To study particles, scientists use particle accelerators, which are large machines that accelerate particles to very high speeds and make them collide with each other. This can produce new particles and reveal new information about their nature.

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN is the world's largest and most powerful particle accelerator. It played a key role in the discovery of the Higgs boson.

The LHC Collider Particle

Examples of particle physics in action

When we look around us, we find that everything is made of atoms, which are themselves made of subatomic particles. Consider a glass of water: it is made of water molecules, each of which contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. These atoms are made of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Analyzing even further, quantum chromodynamics (QCD), a theory within the framework of the standard model, shows us that protons and neutrons are made of quarks that are bound together by gluons.

This microscopic journey into particle physics reveals the complex but beautifully ordered nature of the universe. The remarkably orderly patterns observed at the smallest scales mirror the mechanics of the larger universe that we understand, proving the depth of particle physics' reach in both thought and technology.

Challenges and future of particle physics

The field of particle physics has made great strides, but many questions still remain unanswered. For example, the unification of gravity with the principles of quantum field theory, on which the Standard Model is based, remains an active area of research. Additionally, the nature of dark matter and dark energy, which are a significant part of the universe, is still unknown.

Further progress may be made by studying neutrino masses, the hypothesis of supersymmetry, and potentially discovering new particles. Particle physicists continually aim to find answers to these mysteries that stretch the boundaries of human knowledge.

Conclusion

Particle physics, while complex, is an essential field that advances our understanding of the universe. It addresses the most fundamental questions, influences technological advancements, and opens new avenues of investigation in both theoretical and experimental physics. By probing the most elementary particles and forces, researchers continue to illuminate the complex tapestry of the universe, leading to a deeper understanding of the physical realm.


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Particle physics

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